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.custom instance void [mscorlib]System.Security.SuppressUnmanagedCodeSecurityAttribute::.ctor() = ( 01 00 00 00 ) } Since there is no RVA provided in the P/Invoke metadata used now, the JIT compiler must find another way to determine the address of Beep when it generates the thunk. To generate the thunk now, the JIT compiler has to load the target DLL (unless it has loaded it before). To find the virtual address of the target function, GetProcAddress has to be called. Once this information is available, the thunk can be created. This approach implies that the dependent DLLs are now loaded on demand, not automatically at startup. Since code compiled with /clr:safe cannot use pointers, native classes, structs, enums, or unions, you cannot include windows.h if you want to compile to verifiable IL code. However, you can implement a P/Invoke function manually. The following code produces exactly the same P/Invoke metadata as the sample compiled with /clr:pure: // ManualPInvoke.cpp // compile with "CL /clr:safe ManualPInvoke.cpp" using namespace System::Security; using namespace System::Runtime::InteropServices; [SuppressUnmanagedCodeSecurity] [DllImport("KERNEL32.dll", SetLastError=true, CallingConvention=CallingConvention::StdCall)] int Beep(unsigned long, unsigned long); int main() { Beep(440, 100); } If you compile with /clr or /clr:pure, you will usually prefer automatically generated P/Invoke functions. However, when I discuss fine-tuning managed-unmanaged transitions and custom P/Invoke marshaling, I will mention a few cases in which you might consider defining manual P/Invoke functions.

The discussion so far has focused mainly on architectures: logical architectures that define the separation of responsibilities in an application, and physical architectures that define the locations where the logical layers will run in various configurations. I ve also discussed the use of object-oriented design and the concepts behind mobile objects. Although all of these are important and must be thought through in detail, you really don t want to have to go through this process every time you need to build an application. It would be preferable to have the architecture and design solidified into reusable code that could be used to build all your

applications What you want is an application framework A framework codifies an architecture and design in order to promote reuse and increase productivity The typical development process starts with requirements gathering and analysis, followed by a period of architectural discussion and decision making Next comes the application design: first the low-level concepts to support the architecture and then the business-level concepts that actually matter to the end users With the design completed, developers typically spend a fair amount of time implementing the low-level functions that support the business coding that comes later All of the architectural discussions, decision making, designing, and coding can be a lot of fun Unfortunately, it doesn t directly contribute anything to the end goal of writing business logic and providing business functionality This low-level supporting technology is merely plumbing that must exist in order to create actual business applications.

Developers new to C++/CLI sometimes confuse managed classes and native classes whose member functions are compiled to managed code. Even when all member functions of a C++ class are compiled to managed code, the resulting class is still a C++ type, not a managed type. However, compiling all member functions of a native class to managed code can imply a native-managed transition if native code calls a member function of the native class. The application shown in Figure 9-4 gives an example:

It s an overhead that in the long term you should be able to do once and then reuse across many business application development efforts In the software world, the easiest way to reduce overhead is to increase reuse, and the best way to get reuse out of an architecture (both design and coding) is to codify it into a framework This doesn t mean that application analysis and design are unimportant quite the opposite! People typically spend far too little time analyzing business requirements and developing good application designs to meet those business needs Part of the reason is that they often end up spending substantial amounts of time analyzing and designing the plumbing that supports the business application, and then run out of time to analyze the business issues themselves.

What I m proposing here is to reduce the time spent analyzing and designing the low-level plumbing by creating a framework that you can use across many business applications Is the framework created in this book ideal for every application and every organization Certainly not! You ll have to take the architecture and the framework and adapt them to meet your organization s needs You may have different priorities in terms of performance, scalability, security, fault tolerance, reuse, or other key architectural criteria At the very least, though, the remainder of this book should give you a good start on the design and construction of a distributed, object-oriented architecture and framework..

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