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BECN The backward explicit congestion notification (BECN) bit warns the sender of congestion in the network One might ask how this is accomplished since the frames are traveling away from the sender In fact, there are two methods: The switch can use response frames from the receiver (full-duplex mode), or else the switch can use a predefined connection (DLCI = 1023) to send special frames for this specific purpose The sender can respond to this warning by simply reducing the data rate Figure 2412 shows the use ofBECN FECN The forward explicit congestion notification (FECN) bit is used to warn the receiver of congestion in the network It might appear that the receiver cannot do anything to relieve the congestion However, the Frame Relay protocol assumes that the sender and receiver are communicating with each other and are using some type of flow control at a higher level For example, if there is an acknowledgment mechanism at this

higher level, the receiver can delay the acknowledgment, thus forcing the sender to slow down Figure 2413 shows the use ofFECN

NOTE Because a switch filters traffic on MAC addresses (and MAC addresses run at Layer 2 of the OSI seven-layer model), they are often called Layer 2 switches Speed isn t the only benefit switches bring to a 10BaseT network When you use switches instead of hubs, the entire CSMA/CD game goes out the window Forget about daisy-chain only! Feel free to connect your switches pretty much any way you wish (Figure 4-24)

When two endpoints are communicating using a Frame Relay network, four situations may occur with regard to congestion Figure 2414 shows these four situations and the values of FECN and BECN

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Quality of service (QoS) is an internetworking issue that has been discussed more than defined We can informally define quality of service as something a flow seeks to attain

Traditionally, four types of characteristics are attributed to a flow: reliability, delay, jitter, and bandwidth, as shown in Figure 2415 Figure 2415

Figure 4-24

Reliability is a characteristic that a flow needs Lack of reliability means losing a packet or acknowledgment, which entails retransmission However, the sensitivity of application programs to reliability is not the same For example, it is more important that electronic mail, file transfer, and Internet access have reliable transmissions than telephony or audio conferencing

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Source-to-destination delay is another flow characteristic Again applications can tolerate delay in different degrees In this case, telephony, audio conferencing, video conferencing, and remote log-in need minimum delay, while delay in file transfer or e-mail is less important

Jitter is the variation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow For example, if four packets depart at times 0, 1, 2, 3 and arrive at 20, 21, 22, 23, all have the same delay, 20 units of time On the other hand, if the above four packets arrive at 21, 23, 21, and 28, they will have different delays: 21,22, 19, and 24 For applications such as audio and video, the first case is completely acceptable; the second case is not For these applications, it does not matter if the packets arrive with a short or long delay as long as the delay is the same for all packets For this application, the second case is not acceptable Jitter is defined as the variation in the packet delay High jitter means the difference between delays is large; low jitter means the variation is small In 29, we show how multimedia communication deals with jitter If the jitter is high, some action is needed in order to use the received data

Physically, an Ethernet switch looks much like an Ethernet hub (Figure 4-25) Logically, because the switch creates a point-to-point connection between any two computers, eliminating CSMA/CD, the entire concept of collision domain disappears because there are no longer any collisions Instead, the common term used today is broadcast domain, because all devices connected to a switch will hear a broadcast sent from any one system

Different applications need different bandwidths In video conferencing we need to send millions of bits per second to refresh a color screen while the total number of bits in an e-mail may not reach even a million

Based on the flow characteristics, we can classify flows into groups, with each group having similar levels of characteristics This categorization is not formal or universal; some protocols such as ATM have defined classes, as we will see later

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