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irb(main):004:0> array << 'London' => ["Toronto", "New York", "Paris", "London"] The Hash object offers another way to keep a collection. Hashes are different from arrays, because they store items using a key. Hash objects prior to Ruby 1.9 didn t preserve order; it didn t matter in which order you defined your hash, and you could retrieve it using the key you stored it with. In Ruby 1.9, hash objects preserve order, just like arrays, which enables you to call certain methods on them for example, hash.first to get the first key, value pair. In Ruby, you often use symbols for hash keys, but in reality, any object can function as a key. You define hashes with curly braces, {}. You can create a Hash object by defining it with {:key => "value", :other_key => "other value" }. Then, you can pull out data by using square brackets on the end of the list. For instance, you retrieve a value by saying @my_hash[:key] from the @my_hash variable. Here are some examples: irb(main):005:0> hash = {:canada => 'Toronto', :france => 'Paris', :uk => 'London'} => {:canada=>"Toronto", :france=>"Paris", :uk=>"London"} irb(main):006:0> => "London" irb(main):007:0> => "Calgary" hash[:uk] hash[:canada] = 'Calgary'

Let s step through the code. First, we use the create_table method, giving it the name of the table we want to create. Inside the code block, we use the column method to create columns in the table. The column method takes the name of the column and its type. (For a full description of the available field types you can create in your migrations, see http://api.rubyonrails.org/classes/ActiveRecord/Migration.html.) On its own, this migration does nothing. Really, it s just a plain-old Ruby class. If we want it to do some work and create a table in the database for us, we need to run it. To run a migration, you use the built-in Rake task that Rails provides called db:migrate.

{"a"=>100}

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It s possible to have hashes (or, indeed, any sort of object) within hashes, and even arrays within hashes, within hashes! Because everything is an object and hashes and arrays can contain any other objects, there exists the ability to create giant tree structures with hashes and arrays. Here s a demonstration:

Note Rake is a build language for Ruby. Rails uses Rake to automate several tasks, such as running

irb(main):008:0> hash.first => [:canada, "Calgary"] irb(main):009:0> hash => {:canada=>"Calgary", :france=>"Paris", :uk=>"London"} Notice that on the second line, you redefine what goes into the :canada key. By passing in "Calgary", you override the value of "Toronto" from the preceding command.

C ha p ter 3 r U B Y S B U ILDI NG B LO C K S : D a t a , e X p r e S S I O N S , a N D F LO W C O N t r O L

database migrations, running tests, and updating Rails support files. You can think of Rake tasks as little utility programs. For a list of all available Rake tasks, run rake -T from your Rails project directory. For more information about Rake, including complete documentation, see http://rake.rubyforge.org/.

people = { 'fred' => { 'name' => 'Fred Elliott', 'age' => 63, 'gender' => 'male', 'favorite painters' => ['Monet', 'Constable', 'Da Vinci'] }, 'janet' => { 'name' => 'Janet S Porter', 'age' => 55, 'gender' => 'female' } } puts people['fred']['age'] puts people['janet']['gender'] p people['janet']

Like other programming languages, Ruby includes variables, operators, control-flow statements, and methods. This section shows you how to use them.

63 female {"name"=>"Janet S Porter", "gender"=>"female", "age"=>55} Although the structure of the hash looks a little confusing at first, it becomes reasonably easy when you break it down into sections. The 'fred' and 'janet' sections are simple hashes of their own, but they re wrapped up into another giant hash assigned to people. In the code that queries the giant hash, you simply chain the lookups on top of each other, as with puts people['fred']['age']. First it gets people['fred'], which returns Fred s hash, and then you request ['age'] from that, yielding the result of 63. Even the array embedded within Fred s hash is easy to access: puts people['fred']['favorite painters'].length puts people['fred']['favorite painters'].join(", ")

connection. We sort of hijacked it for our test, knowing that it will attempt to connect to the database and thus prove whether the connection works. Since there were no existing migrations when we first ran it, it didn t do anything. Now that we have our first migration, running, it will result in a table being created.

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