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Chemicals Aqueous solvents, detergents, and emulsifiers. Acid can help undercut residues and remove thick copper oxides. In acidic environments, copper is oxidized by persulfate (S2O8++), peroxide (H2O2), or proprietary monopersulfate acid mixes. Sulfuric acid is common to all types of microetch. 1 2 mm of Cu is oxidized to Cu++ and dissolved. Immersion deposit (galvanic displacement) Pd++ + Cu(0) Pd(0) + Cu++ (or) Ru+++ + Cu(0) Ru(0) + Cu++ Nickel is deposited through chemical (sodium hypophosphite) reduction. Rate control, by pH and temperature, determines phosphorous content, usually 8 11% by weight. Normally, automated controllers are needed to maintain this dynamic bath. Nickel can be measured optically or with titration. Ammonia maintains pH.

10 20

2 - 0 15 - 3

Immersion deposit (galvanic displacement) Au+ + Ni(0) Au(0) + Ni++ Gold is added as KAu(CN)2. Do not use gold salts containing Co or Ni.

Summary

8 15

(11.10)

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Due to the long dwell times, high operating temperatures, and complicated chemical reactions, the ENIG process is always conducted in vertical tanks. To achieve the throughput required in production, many ENIG systems make use of two or three electroless nickel (EN) tanks, which allows for heating new baths or nickel stripping. Using two active EN tanks greatly improves throughput, but the total process ordinarily exceeds 1 hour in cycle time. In addition to the normal plastic materials used in tank construction, stainless steel can be used for EN tanks. This is possible only with the use of anodic passivation, which employs an electrical bias applied to the steel to prevent reduction of nickel ions on the steel. By using steel tanks, fabricators avoid the frequent stripping of plastic tanks required due to the slow plate-out of nickel on rough surfaces and localized hot spots.

Advantages and Disadvantages Table 32.4 shows comparison of advantages and disadvantages of ENIG surface finishes.

The equation for the valve is therefore m = [1.25 + K,(p - 10.5)]p.4 In terms of deviation variables, this can be written

TABLE 32.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of ENIG ENIG advantages Flat; fine-pitch assembly Surface contacts Widely available No copper dissolution No Pb Strong PTH rivet Long shelf-life ENIG disadvantages Expensive Brittle Ni/Sn solderjoint Not reworkable Solder mask attack Black-pad, black-line nickel Signal loss at RF frequencies Very complicated process

Failure Modes ENIG failure modes at fabrication are mainly due to the activity of the chemical process steps. Underactive catalysis yields skip plating in the subsequent nickel bath. Nickel skips allow copper to migrate through gold and prevent solder wetting. Overactive catalysis can lead to extra metal between circuit features, known as extraneous plating. This can cause short circuits. Overactive nickel baths deposit low phosphorous content, leading to the interconnection failure mode known as black-pad (described in Sec. 12.2). Overactive gold chemistry attacks nickel along nodule boundaries and produces black-pad. Such gold conditions may be detected with frequent x-ray fluorescence (XRF) thickness measurement. Underactive nickel and gold baths pose skip-plate problems. Peeling of gold films can result from too much rinse time after nickel or from poor rinse quality. Tape testing of ENIG is mandatory. Very rough nickel deposits are possible when the electroless nickel bath is not closely maintained. Nickel baths can destabilize, plate onto the tank walls, and produce inferior coatings. Lastly, soldered ENIG surfaces result in a nickel-tin solderjoint. This structure has been demonstrated to be less tolerant of physical shock than the copper-tin solderjoint. The brittle intermetallic is unavoidable with ENIG, so mobile devices usually do not employ ENIG solderjoints.

(11.11)

ORGANIC SOLDERABILITY PRESERVATIVE (OSP)

As the name connotes, OSPs are very thin organic coatings used to preserve the solderability of PCB surface copper. Differing from alternative surface finishes that attempt to serve other PCB functions, OSPs are generally limited to solderability preservation only. The most widely used OSPs, benzimidazoles and phenylimidazoles, have evolved from earlier antitarnish coatings and can endure multiple soldering operations. OSP is the least expensive and simplest of all major surface finish options, so it enjoys wide use throughout the world. OSP use is limited, however, due to poor contact functionality for ICT and electrical test. Also, it suffers from degradation after multiple thermal operations, so solder wetting on Pb-free assemblies can pose problems.

(11.12)

Chemistry OSP is the simplest chemical process of the surface finishes, but the chemical itself is actually quite complicated. In brief, a large organic molecule (see Fig. 32.3) is dissolved into a solution of water and organic acid. The circuit board is exposed to the solution, and the OSP molecule attaches to the PCB s exposed copper surfaces. A chemical bond is formed between copper and a nitrogen group in the OSP. Copper is present in the chemical bath, so multiple layers of an OSP-copper complex can deposit on the surface, reaching a thickness of 0.10 to 0.60 mm.

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